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Maxim > Design
support > App notes
> A/D and
D/A Conversion/Sampling Circuits > APP
4993
Maxim > Design support >
App notes
> Amplifier
and Comparator Circuits > APP 4993
Maxim > Design support >
App notes
> Analog
Switches and Multiplexers > APP
4993

Mar 08, 2011

Keywords: digital potentiometer, low pass filter,
filter, low-pass filter, lowpass filte, anti aliasing, sampled
data system, folded, Nyquist, data converters, spectrum,
harmonics, FFT, ADC, convolution, DAC, op amps, RC, LC,
Butterworth
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parts

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APPLICATION NOTE 4993

Reduce the Chances of Human Error: Part 2, Super
Amps and Filters for Analog Interface

By:

Bill
Laumeister, Strategic Applications Engineer

Abstract: A
common view holds that digital circuits just work naturally,
but analog circuits are hard to implement. There is truth to
that old belief—analog interface is an expert subject that
requires training. It is, moreover, always better to avoid an
issue than to try to solve it later. This is precisely why we
should take advantage of some basic concepts that experienced
analog engineers perform as a reflex. This application note
provides some basic reminders and concepts about amplifiers
and filters for you to consider during a design.

Attend
this brief webcast by Maxim on
TechOnline

Introduction
As children we learned to share and in
that process we learned about portions. Many parents taught
this to children by having one child cut the pie or cake and
then letting another child pick the piece first. We can be
sure that great care was used to make the pieces all the same
size.

We are reminded of a good lesson in life, "It's
the ratio that counts." We use ratios in everyday life when we
compare distances between different routes or the taste of two
foods. (Yes, mom's cooking was better, or maybe we were too
young to know any difference?).

Moving from children,
pies, and cakes to analog engineering design, we realize that
ratios—the relative amount, proportion, percentage, share,
part, and fraction—are all important measurements in analog
design. When we ignore these ratios and relationships, we
introduce human error into what must be a precise process.
This application note shares some analog concepts about
amplifiers and filters that will help reduce the chances of
"human" error and improve the analog design.

Considerations for Signal to Noise (SNR)
Crosstalk
and signal to noise (SNR) are expressed as ratios, a
proportion of good to bad. How does one improve the SNR of a
signal? If a particular circuit contributes considerable
noise, we have two basic options: first, reduce the noise
somehow, or second, increase the amplitude of the good signal
before it goes through the stage. Figure 1 illustrates
the concept.

Figure
1. Power-supply noise is added to the signal.

In
application note 4992, "Reduce the Chances of
Human Error: Part 1, Power and Ground," we concentrated on
power noise, ground, and layout. In this companion article we
examine how to control noise in the signal path. We discuss
the characteristics of the signal and noise as we proceed
through the various circuit stages.

Is the major noise
source
harmonics of a switching power supply? If the power-supply
noise is 50kHz and higher and if our wanted signal is 1kHz,
then filtering may be feasible. If we will be going into an
ADC next, the anti-aliasing filter may help.

Reducing Noise
What possibilities does an experienced
circuit designer evaluate? The simplest fix is to amplify the
signal before the noise is added. Yes, straightforward enough,
but unfortunately this solution most often cannot be used
because the incoming signal already has noise present. So now
we get creative and consider how to separate the signal from
noise? Can we use highpass, lowpass, or bandpass filters? Can
we discriminate on the basis of amplitude, limiting, noise
blanking, or coring? Can we use preemphasis
before the noise is introduced and deemphasis after to
increase SNR? Can we discriminate on the basis of time, i.e.,
sample at a minimum noise level or interference time? Can we
time average, or if the signal is repetitive, can we sum cycles
or average in two, three, or more dimensions?

Turning
from component functions, think about the system as a whole.
What are the system goals? How will the system be used? How
will the human senses interact with the information provided
by the system? In short, consider all the information that we
can muster.

The above set of questions reflects
considerable design experience and knowledge. This is
precisely why smart companies hire experienced engineers and
mentor the new engineers to build a solid design
team.

We can use an example to illustrate the thinking
and development process. The first observation finds that the
system has a high-gain operational
amplifier at its input. The op
amp feeds an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Occasionally a large noise pulse appears on the signal and
this causes the op amp to saturate. The op amp recovery time
might be as long as milliseconds or seconds. How will we
approach the issue? Since every case will be different, we
will just ask questions and point out possible
solutions.

First, gather data to try to understand what
is happening. Can we fix the source? No. So we decide that the
noise spike is unavoidable. What do we know about its risetime
amplitude and duration? If the spike is very fast and narrow
and our wanted signal is relatively slow, can we separate them
by filtering? Can we detect the spike and open a series switch
to blank out the spike from the main path? Could we add a pair
of diodes like an electrostatic
discharge (ESD) structure to clip any signal that goes
above VCC or below ground? Can we learn from
application note 4344, "Rail Splitter, from
Abraham Lincoln to Virtual Ground?" In Figure 2 of
that application note we create a voltage between
VCC and ground at the average signal level of the
wanted signal. If the series resistor was replaced with a pair
of back-to-back diodes (Figure 2), the signal spike would be
limited to the voltage ±0.6V for silicon diodes (red dashed
lines) and ~±0.3V for Schottky diodes (green dashed lines).
The reverse
recovery time for silicon diodes can be between one
hundreds and several hundreds of nanoseconds. Schottky diodes
have a switching time of ~100ps for the small signal diodes
but, because of their operating physics, do not have a reverse
recovery time. The diodes can also be placed in the op amp
feedback loop to reduce gain during the spike. Figure 3
shows the effect of limiting.

Figure
2. Replacing a series resistor with a pair of back-to-back
diodes.

Figure
3. Diode limiter effect, ±0.3V Schottky, ±0.6V
silicon.

Figure 3 may help relieve op amp
saturation and recovery time, but is it enough? We could add
circuits to blank out the noise pulse as in Figure
4.

Figure
4. Noise pulse blanking.

The block diagram of the
blanking circuit is Figure 5.

Figure
5. Noise-blanking block diagram.

From the basic
concept of blanking in Figure 5, more elegance can be added.
The input buffer may not be needed if the source is low impedance.
R1 and R2 set a DC value as shown in application note 4344,
"Rail Splitter, from Abraham Lincoln to Virtual Ground,"
mentioned above. Alternatively, the input signal could be AC
coupled to this same voltage or the input signal could be
averaged over the long term to produce this voltage. The main
signal path is from the input buffer through a RC delay, the
mux, buffer, and lowpass filter to the ADC. The MAX11203 ADC has
four general-purpose input or output (GPIO)
ports controlled by the SPI
interface. The GPIO is set so that the AIN1of the MAX313 multiplexor
is on and AIN2 is off. We highpass or differentiate the noise
pulse. The dual or window
comparator output will be active while the noise pulse
exceeds 0.3V in either the positive or negative direction. The
XOR gated inverts the logic to the mux, thereby turning off
the main path and switching on the DC voltage. The RC delay
also delays the main path long enough for the comparator path
to change state. If the RC delay degrades the signal bandwidth
too much, an LC delay
line can be substituted.

The input buffer of Figure
5 could use a MAX4209 instrument
amplifier which has incredibly low offset drift despite its
high gain. Application note 4179, "Autozero Noise Filtering
Improves Instrumentation Amplifier Output," explains
why.

The filter just before the ADC in Figure 5 can
control signal bandwidth to meet Nyquist
anti-aliasing, reduce noise, or soften the residual blanking
glitch.
The following application notes will provide advice and ideas:

3077, "A
Digitally Controllable Lowpass Filter Using a Digital
Potentiometer"

928, "Filter
Basics: Anti-Aliasing"

3716, "Folded-Frequency
Calculator"

3494, "The
Basics of Anti-Aliasing: Using Switched-Capacitor
Filters"

733, "A Filter
Primer"

1795, "Analog
Filter Design Demystified"

724, "Generating
Switched-Capacitor-Filter Clocks"

Application
note 4617, "ADC Input
Translator," uses resistor-dividers to scale the differential
inputs and a stable voltage reference to offset the inputs.
This circuit design enables an ADC with a 0V to 5V input range
(e.g., the MAX1402) to accept
inputs in the range +10.5V to -10.5V.

Calibration ideas
using digital-to-analog converters (DACs) and potentiometers
are covered in application notes 4494, "Methods for Calibrating
Gain Error in Data-Converter Systems," and 818, "Digital Adjustment of
DC-DC Converter Output Voltage in Portable Applications."
The digital-output voltage-adjustment methods are performed
with DAC, a trim pot (digital potentiometer), and PWM
output of a microprocessor. Application note 4704, "Introduction to
Electronic Calibration and Methods for Correcting
Manufacturing Tolerances in Industrial Equipment Designs,"
includes a discussion of the DS4303 infinite
sample-and-hold to capture a DC Voltage. Other application
notes about digital pots include:

4101, "Differentiating
Digital Potentiometer Features"

593, "Dallas
Semiconductor Digital Potentiometers: Frequently Asked
Questions"

4025, "DACs vs.
Digital Potentiometers: Which Is Right for My
Application?"

Analog I/O, interface circuits and
digital-port signal protection ideas are discussed in the
following application notes:

Sensor
signal conditioners

651, "ESD
Protection for I/O Ports"

1167, "Practical Aspects of
EMI Protection"

3950, "A
Measurement Technique for Determining RF Immunity"

RS-232,
RS-485, smartcard interface, USB, LVDS

2023, "LVDS
Serializer-Deserializer Performance over Twisted Pair
Cable"

Maxim has watchdog circuits which ensure
that microprocessor-controlled devices react in a known manner
if the processor loses control. The following application
notes offer ideas for using watchdogs: 4558, "Simple Latching Watchdog
Timer," and 4229, "Comparison of Internal
and External Watchdog
Timers."

Microprocessor-controlled system clocks
typically are of two types: system clocks controlling
computing functions in orderly ways, and real time clocks (RTCs)
or clocks that relate to human time concepts. Computer clocks
operate like soldiers marching in cadence. This can result in
interference products that may not meet regulatory
requirements. Clock-generator spread-spectrum techniques to
reduce this interference are discussed in these notes: 2863,
"The Effects of
Adjusting the DS1086L's Dither Span and Dither Frequency on
EMC Measurements," and 3512, "Automotive Applications
for Silicon Spread-Spectrum Oscillators." RTC ideas are
found at www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes10.cfm/ac_pk/21.

Conclusion
Noise and interference control is different
in every circuit and system. Thankfully, the laws of physics
prevail and engineers must work hard to silence noise. This
discussion has tried to help designers anticipate noise and
interference issues before the design starts and during the
design. After the product is in production, the options for
correction are severely limited.

SPI
is a trademark of Motorola, Inc.

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Free
samples

MAX6173

High-Precision Voltage
References with Temperature Sensor

Free
samples

MAX6174

High-Precision Voltage
References with Temperature Sensor

Free
samples

MAX6175

High-Precision Voltage
References with Temperature Sensor

Free
samples

MAX6176

High-Precision Voltage
References with Temperature Sensor

Free
samples

MAX6177

High-Precision Voltage
References with Temperature Sensor

Free
samples

MAX6220

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage Reference

MAX6220

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage Reference

MAX6225

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6225

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6241

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6250

Low-Noise, Precision,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6325

1ppm/°C, Low-Noise,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6341

1ppm/°C, Low-Noise,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX6350

1ppm/°C, Low-Noise,
+2.5V/+4.096V/+5V Voltage References

Free
samples

MAX674

+10V Precision Voltage
Reference

Free
samples

MAX6749

µP Reset Circuits with
Capacitor-Adjustable Reset/Watchdog Timeout
Delay

Free
samples

MAX675

Precision, 5V Voltage
Reference, Replaced MAX673

Free
samples

MAX6752

µP Reset Circuits with
Capacitor-Adjustable Reset/Watchdog Timeout
Delay

Free
samples

MAX7375

3-Pin Silicon
Oscillator

Free
samples

MAX7400

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7401

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Bessel, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7403

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7404

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7405

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Bessel, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7407

8th-Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7408

5th Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7410

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7411

5th Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7412

5th Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7413

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7414

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7415

5th Order, Lowpass,
Elliptic, Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7418

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7418

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7419

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7419

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7420

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7421

5th-Order, Lowpass,
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7490

Dual Universal
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7490

Dual Universal
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX7491

Dual Universal
Switched-Capacitor Filters

Free
samples

MAX9205

10-Bit Bus LVDS
Serializers

Free
samples

MAX9206

10-Bit Bus LVDS
Deserializers

Free
samples

MAX9207

10-Bit Bus LVDS
Serializers

Free
samples

MAX9208

10-Bit Bus LVDS
Deserializers

Free
samples

REF01

+5V, +10V Precision
Voltage References

Free
samples

REF02

+5V, +10V Precision
Voltage References

Free
samples

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Download,
PDF format (107kB)
APP 4993: Mar 08, 2011

AN4993, AN 4993, APP4993,
Appnote4993, Appnote 4993

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