Elliott Sound Products

Beginners' Guide to
Potentiometers

Copyright © 2001 - Rod Elliott (ESP)
Page Created
22 Jan 2002

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Articles
Index
Main Index

Contents

Introduction

Basic Pots and
Knobs

Knobs

Trimpots

Potentiometer
Tapers

Pot Markings

Power and
Voltage Ratings

Putting Your Pot to
Use

Changing the Law of a
Pot

Conclusion

Introduction

The humble potentiometer (or pot, as it is more commonly known) is a simple
electro-mechanical transducer. It converts rotary or linear motion from the
operator into a change of resistance, and this change is (or can be) used to
control anything from the volume of a hi-fi system to the direction of a huge
container ship.

The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat (or reostat in some
texts) - essentially a variable wirewound resistor. The array of different types
is now quite astonishing, and it can be very difficult for the beginner (in
particular) to work out which type is suitable for a given task. The fact that
quite a few different pot types can all be used for the same task makes the job
that much harder - freedom of choice is at best confusing when you don't know
what the choices actually are, or why you should make them. This article is not
about to cover every aspect of pots, but is an introduction to the subject. For
anyone wanting to know more, visit manufacturers' web sites, and have a look at
the specifications and available types.

The very first variable resistors were either a block of carbon (or some
other resistive material) with a sliding contact, or a box full of carbon
granules, with a threaded screw to compress the granules. More compression leads
to lower resistance, and vice versa. These are rare in modern equipment, so we
shall limit ourselves to the more common types .

Basic Pots and Knobs

It is worthwhile to have a look at a few of the common pot types that are
available. Figure 1 shows an array of conventional pots - both PCB and panel
mounting.

Figure 1 - Some Examples of Pots

Note that these are not to scale, although the relative sizes are passably
close. Apart from the different body shapes and sizes, there are also many
'standard' mounting hole and shaft sizes. Probably the most common of all is the
one in the centre of the picture. A panel mount, 25 millimetre (1") diameter
pot. This uses a 10mm (3/8") mounting hole, and has a 6.35mm (1/4") shaft. These
pots have been with us - almost unchanged - for 50 years or more.

The remainder show a few of the many variations available. The fluted shaft
types are commonly referred to as 'metric', but will accept a standard 1/4" knob
- albeit with a little play (it is less than a perfect fit, but is acceptable if
the grub screw is tight enough). Metric pots are also available in 16mm round
and 25mm round formats.

Most rotary pots have 270 degrees of rotation from one extreme to the other.
A 'single turn' pot is therefore really only a 3/4 turn device, despite the
name. There are some other rotary types with only 200 degrees or so, and some
specialty types may have less than that again.

The standard schematic symbol for a pot is shown to the
left (although some people insist on using zig-zag lines for resistors and
pots, I don't and never have, so don't expect me to start now
). A little later, we shall look at the many ways a standard pot may be
wired, as well as some further explanations of the different 'law' or
taper used. Project
01 has been on this site for a long time now, and is a simple and
effective way to create an almost logarithmic taper from a linear pot -
but I am getting ahead of myself here.

First, we need to continue with the examination of the basic types (and you
thought the above small sample was enough ).
Well, as they say ... "You ain't seen nothin' yet!"

Knobs
Before we look at other pot types, a quick
sample of knobs. Yes, I know that everyone has seen knobs, but a dissertation on
pots would be less than complete if I didn't include these.

Figure 2 - Some Examples of Knobs

Of these, only one deserves special mention - the one on the left. This is a
multi turn vernier readout (analogue in this case) for a standard pot. Typically
used with precision wirewound or conductive plastic pots, these used to be
common on equipment where very accurate (and repeatable) settings were required.
They are expensive, but in their day were almost indispensable. Now, a digital
panel meter is cheaper, and considered much more 'high tech' - such is progress,
but at the expense of the 'olde worlde' charm of a mechanical contrivance. And
yes, you can still get them!

The remainder are perfectly ordinary knobs, and again, are but a very small
sample of those available from a multiplicity of manufacturers. Most cheap knobs
are plastic, but they are available with brass inserts, in solid aluminium
(brushed, anodised, etc.), plastic innards with a thin aluminium outer shell or
just an insert. You can even buy audiophool audiophile solid
wood knobs, optionally coated with special lacquer that is designed to make you
think the sound has improved (nudge-nudge, wink-wink
). The list is endless, but I shall end it here.

Trimpots
Then of course, there are trimpots
(aka trimmers) - pots designed for 'set and forget' applications. They are used
for 'trimming' the value of a resistor, and are commonly used for calibrating
instruments, setting the bias current on power amplifiers, and a host of other
areas where a circuit cannot be relied upon to give an exact gain, output
voltage, or current. Naturally, a normal panel pot can be used, but these are
very much bigger, and any calibration or setup control should not be made
available for everyone to fiddle with as they please.

Figure 3 - Some Trimpot Styles

This is a very small sample of those available. The first and fourth are
multi-turn types, and these should be used when a very precise setting is
required. Because they are sealed, they are relatively immune from
contamination, and for all but the most trivial application, should be used
instead of the open types (#2 and #5). Trimpots (as shown) are generally
available as vertical or horizontal - the choice is usually made based on ease
of adjustment of the final circuit.

When specifying trimpots, it's a good idea to use a trimmer that's as close
as possible to double the resistance you need under ideal conditions. For
example, if you need a resistance of 200 ohms under ideal conditions, you could
use a 100 ohm trimpot with a 150 ohm resistor in series. 200 ohms is reached
when the trimpot is centred, and you have ±50 ohms of adjustment range.

Potentiometer Tapers

The taper (also called 'law') of a pot is important. We need not worry with
trimpots, since they are almost always linear, and I do not know of a supplier
of anything other than linear trimpots. For all panel pots, we must be aware of
the use the pot will have, and select the correct type accordingly.

The most common use of a pot in audio is for a volume control. Since our
hearing has a logarithmic response to sound pressure, it is important that the
volume control should provide a smooth variation from soft to loud, such that a
given change in position of the pot causes the same sensation of volume change
at all levels.

Figure 4 - Potentiometer Tapers

First, the term 'taper' needs some explanation. In the early days, when an
audio taper (logarithmic, or just log) was needed, the resistance element was
indeed tapered, so that it provided a different resistivity at different
settings. By changing the physical taper, it was possible to make a pot provide
the exact gradient of resistance needed. By definition, a linear pot has no
taper as such (the resistance element is parallel sided), but the term has
stuck, so we might as well get used to it.

The violet curve in Figure 4 shows an antilog or reverse audio taper pot.
These are quite uncommon, but used to be used for balance controls using a
log/antilog dual section (commonly called dual gang) pot. It is shown on the
graph mainly for its interest value, but they are generally an historical
component now.

All this tapering proved a rather expensive exercise, so manufacturers
economised ("they won't notice the difference!"), and worked out a method of
using two resistance elements of differing resistivity, and joining them to
create what I referred to as the 'Commercial log' taper. In short, it doesn't
work (not properly, anyway), and the discontinuity where the two sections join
is almost always audible with cheap 'log' pots.

Project 01 showed how this can be fixed, and I will explain the logic a
little more as we progress. In the meantime, I suggest that you get an old pot
and dismantle it so that you can see exactly what is inside. I could show you
some photos, but there is nothing like doing it yourself to really get to know
the subject.

Pot Markings
Now, this should be dead easy -
a simple code to indicate the resistance and law of a pot should cause no grief
to anyone, right? Wrong! It wouldn't have been so bad if someone hadn't decided
to change it, and even then, it wouldn't have been so bad if there was no
overlap between the 'old' and 'new' 'standards' ... I think you can see where
this is headed by now.

Taper

Old Code

New Code

Alternate

Linear

A

B

LIN

Log (Audio)

C

A

LOG

Antilog

F

N/A

N/A

Wasn't that a nice thing to do? It is obviously important to check before you
make assumptions, or you can easily get the wrong type - especially if working
on older equipment.

At least the resistance marking is usually sensible, so a 100k pot will be
marked as 100K - but not always. The coding system used for capacitors is
sometimes used as well (especially on small trimpots), so a 100k pot could also
be marked as 104 - 10, followed by 4 zeros, or 100000 (100k) ohms.

Because they are variable, there is a much smaller range of potentiometer
values, almost always in a 1, 2, 5 sequence. Common values for panel pots are
1k, 5k, 10k, 20k, 50k, 100k, 500k and 1Meg, and there are also pots with more or
less resistance than the small example here. There are also some intermediate
values, such as 22k, 25k and 47k and often some seemingly odd values that are
usually intended for specific applications and may be very expensive.
Values such as 2.5k and 250k went missing along the way, and these are not
stocked by very many distributors. 25k pots are becoming harder to get as well.
Not all values are available in log and linear, and in some cases you may even
find that for a particular type, you can get them in any value you want, as long
as it's 100k (for example).

Trimpots suffer a similar fate. The only way to know what you can get from
your local supplier is to check their catalogue. In reality, everything is
available, but you may have to go a very long way to get it or it may be far
more expensive than a more common value. It's extremely rare that you need a pot
with a specific resistance, and using the closest available will rarely cause a
problem. Precision pots usually have a very well defined total resistance, and
the resistance change should be perfectly linear for each unit of rotation.
Expect to pay dearly - $70 or more is quite common.

Tolerance is generally not very good. A nominal 10k pot may have a quoted
tolerance of ±20%, so its total resistance could be anywhere between 8k and 12k.
This is of little consequence for a single gang pot, but dual-gang types may be
expected to be matched. Unfortunately, don't count on it. Linear pots are
usually better matched than log.

Power and Voltage Ratings

For most audio applications, these are of little on no consequence. In many
other applications however, exceeding the specified ratings could lead to the
destruction of the pot or yourself! Neither can be considered a good thing.

Power - A pot with a power rating of (say) 0.5W will have a maximum
voltage that can exist across the pot before the rating is exceeded. All power
ratings are with the entire resistance element in circuit, so maximum
dissipation reduces as the resistance is reduced (assuming series or 'two
terminal' rheostat wiring). Let's look at the 0.5W pot, and 10k is a good value
to start with for explanation.

If the maximum dissipation is 0.5W and the resistance is 10k, then the
maximum current that may flow through the entire resistance element is
determined by ...

P = I² * R ... therefore
I =√P / R ... so I = 7mA

In fact, 7mA is the maximum current that can flow in any part of the
resistance element, so if the 10k pot were set to a resistance of 1k, current is
still 7mA, and maximum power is now only 50mW, and not the 500mW we had before.

Voltage - Two separate issues here. One is directly related (in part,
at least) to the power rating, and is important to ensure that the life of the
pot is not reduced. Knowing about the other might save your life.

Voltage across resistance element - The maximum voltage across the
example pot from above is 7mA * 10k, or 70V. This will rarely (if ever) be
achieved in an audio system, but is easy with many other designs. As the
resistance increases, so does the voltage - a 0.5W 1M pot will pass only 700uA
at maximum power rating, but the voltage needed to create this current is 700V.
Unless the pot is actually rated to withstand 700V across the resistance element
(very unlikely), it will fail - maybe not today, or tomorrow, but it
will fail eventually. Special pots are made (custom jobs, of
course) for high voltages, and standard pots should never be used beyond their
rating - assuming that you can find out what the rating is, of course.

Dielectric Voltage - The dielectric (insulation of pot 'guts' to the
body) rating is especially important if the pot is connected to mains operated,
non-isolated equipment. Wall mounted lamp dimmers and such are typical examples.
This is not commonly specified, but for safety, should be at least 2.5kV. A
common way to achieve this is to use a plastic shaft, with the body of the pot
insulated from the chassis, and inaccessible by the user - even if the knob
falls off or is removed! This point cannot be stressed highly enough.

Most standard pots will safely withstand (maybe) 100V or so between the
resistance element and terminals, and the body and shaft. Miniature types will
usually be less than this. Never, ever, use a standard pot with a metal
shaft to control direct mains operated equipment. Even if the pot case is
earthed, the voltage rating between the internal element(s) and terminals to the
case is often unspecified, and is almost always completely unsuited to mains
voltages. The only way to ensure electrical safety is to use a pot with a
plastic shaft.

Potentiometer Types

"But we already covered that, didn't we?" Not really - I merely glossed over
the basics. Now, we shall look at a few examples of pots you may come across.
Firstly, there is the resistive material and some typical characteristics
...

Material

Manufacturing Method

Common uses

Power (Typ)

Carbon

Deposited as a carbon composition ink on an insulating wafer (usually
a phenolic resin)

Most common material, especially for cheap to average quality pots.
Has a reasonable life, and noise level is quite acceptable in most cases.
(DC should not be allowed to flow through any pot used for audio control)

0.1 to 0.5W

Cermet

Ceramic/metal composite, using a metallic resistance element on a
ceramic substrate

High quality trimpots, and some conventional panel mount types (not
very common). Low noise, and high stability. Relatively limited life (200
operations typical for trimpots)

0.25 to 2W
(or more)

Conductive Plastic

Special impregnated plastic material with well controlled resistance
characteristics

High quality (audiophile and professional) pots, both
rotary and linear (slide). Excellent life, low noise and very good
mechanical feel

0.25 to 0.5W

Wire wound

Insulating former, with resistance wire wound around it, and bound
with adhesive to prevent movement

High power and almost indefinite life. Resistance is 'granular', with
discrete small steps rather than a completely smooth transition from one
resistance winding to the next. Low noise, usually a rough mechanical
feel.

5 to 50W
(or more)

Bear in mind that the above list is a rough guide only, and is not intended
to be be the 'last word' on the different resistive types or their
characteristics. In all cases, if you really want to know the full details about
any one of those listed, get the manufacturers' data for the pot - it will be a
lot more accurate (and specific) than the brief explanations above.

In addition to the resistive materials, there is also the physical type of
pot. I am not going to describe the size and shape, but how the pot is
configured mechanically and electrically.

Actuator

Configuration

Type

Typical uses

Rotary

Single gang

Single turn

Single channel controls for monoblock amplifiers, guitar amps, or
anywhere that a single control is sufficient for the application.

Rotary

Single gang

Multi turn

Precision trimpots for critical applications. The resistance range is
covered in anything from 10 to 25 turns of the screwdriver slotted
actuator. There are some multi turn panel pots, but these are quite rare
and expensive. Multi turn dual pots are also very uncommon.

Rotary

Dual gang

Single turn

Stereo applications, or anywhere it is desirable to change two
separate resistances at once. Nearly all dual gang pots have equal
resistances and tapers, but it may be possible to rebuild a dual gang pot
using intestines removed from another pot of the same make and type (not
needed very often though)

Rotary

Dual concentric

Single turn

Commonly used in (cheap) car radios and some consumer goods. These
feature dual concentric shafts, allowing a single pot position to provide
(for example) volume and 'tone'. The knobs are designed to fit the
separate shafts (which are usually of different diameters). Almost
impossible to buy from retail outlets or manufacturers in small
quantities. (Usually to special order)

Linear

Single gang

Slide

Commonly used as 'faders', unless they are of high quality, best just
called slide pots. They are available in a variety of lengths, from 30mm
to 100mm or more of linear travel. True faders will normally be relatively
long, and generally are conductive plastic (and rather expensive
)

Linear

Dual gang

Slide

As above, but for stereo mixers. Otherwise identical
comments apply.

Again, this is a simplified listing. If you are willing to pay for 10,000
units, most pot makers will quite happily build you a triple gang pot with
unequal resistances and different tapers, or an eight gang pot so you can build
a variable stereo crossover network. In fact, almost any configuration is
possible, but for various reasons may not be plausible or sensible.

Nearly all manufacturers and distributors have settled on a limited range of
'standard' values and types, based on the most common uses for their products.
That other configurations used to be available but were withdrawn due to lack of
consistent sales is a lamentable fact, brought about by 'economic
rationalisation', which basically means that if they don't sell them in good
quantities, they will be neither made nor stocked by anyone (unless you are
happy to pay through the nose, of course).

Most problems of this type can be solved by throwing money at them until the
problem disappears, but few of us can afford this approach - besides, I think
the military establishments of the world have a patent on that method :-)

A standard single gang pot is shown in Figure 5. The important external bits
are shown so you can refer to them as needed. I have (somewhat arbitrarily)
numbered the terminals as 1, 2 and 3. Terminal 2 is the wiper. For a 'standard'
volume control application, 1 is normally connected to ground, the input is
applied to 3, and the output taken from 2 (wiper) allowing the output to be
varied from ground (no signal) to input (maximum signal).

Figure 5 - Single Gang Pot Detail

There are also a few odd-ball additions to the list. These include pots with
integral switches (as used in small transistor radios - hint as to where to get
one if you need it badly enough). The switches may be rotary, so in the minimum
volume position, the switch is off, or they may use a push-pull switch. Older
car radios often use a combination switch and dual concentric pot, so that
power, volume and tone can all be controlled with one knob complex.

As before, the possibilities are almost endless, limited only by imagination
and budget. There are few mechanical constraints that will prevent a special
design from being feasible, although expecting accurate tracking on a 20 gang
pot might be asking too much. Could it be made though? But of course - "Leave
your large sack of money with me, sir, and come on in." In reality I expect few
manufacturers would be interested unless you were placing a very large order.

Oh yes, I almost forgot. Motorised pots. Standard (or high quality) rotary or
slide pots that are driven by small DC motors to allow remote control. Even a
cheap pot will usually outperform an expensive 'digital' volume control, with
the added advantage that it can be operated by hand or with the remote. These
are quite common, and even some of the (relatively cheap) Chinese made subwoofer
'plate' amps use them for remote control. Not all motorised pots are created
equal of course, and spending more usually gets you a better pot, motor, clutch
and gearbox.

Ah! Another one ... Most pot 'gangs' are 3 terminal types, but there are some
with a tapping partway along the resistance element. This was used in the bad
old days to create a 'loudness' control, where the bass and treble are increased
at low levels to compensate for the way our hearing reacts to different levels.
Because there was rarely (if ever) any attempt to match the acoustic power
levels, the loudness control was always wrong. To get it right requires source,
preamp, power amp and speakers to have a known gain/ sensitivity, and ideally a
preset control would have been incorporated to ensure the system could be
calibrated. This was never done by the vast majority of manufacturers - Yamaha
appears to be the only maker who even made an attempt (I don't know how
good it was, never having seen a system that used it).

Pots with a centre-tap have also been used with tone controls. The tap is
earthed (grounded) so when the pot is centred, there can be no effect from the
frequency shaping filters. Some pots have 'detents', either a single centre
detent or all the way around. These feel a little like multi-way switches, and
some people like the 'clicky' feel while others hate it.

Putting Your Pot to Use

Well, that part is simple, isn't it? Judging from the number of e-mails I get
asking about how to wire pots, the answer is obviously "no". Being 3 terminal
devices (for a single gang), there are quite a few different ways that they can
be wired. Connection to a single terminal is rather pointless, so at least that
eliminates three 'possibilities'. At this point, a diagram is needed ...

Figure 6 - Potentiometer Terminals and Connections

As shown in Figure 6, a pot is usually wired using all three terminals, and I
have used the same numbering scheme as in Figure 5. One terminal (1) is earthed
(grounded) for use as a volume control - the most common usage. This allows the
wiper to be turned all the way to zero signal for maximum attenuation. Note that
if the earth terminal were to be left disconnected, all we have is a variable
series resistance, whose effectiveness will be minimal in typical circuitry.
This is still a common usage however, but for different reasons (see below).

Turning the shaft clockwise (CW - by convention, to move pin 2 physically
closer to pin 3, and increase (for example) volume) will select a different
point along the resistance element, and forms a voltage divider, so the
attenuation of the signal is proportional to the rotation of the shaft. At the
fully clockwise position, there is close to zero ohms in series with the signal,
and the full resistance of the pot to earth. Attenuation at this setting is zero
(assuming a zero or low impedance source - this is often overlooked!), and this
is full volume (maximum signal level).

The source impedance should normally be no greater than 1/10th (0.1) of the
pot's stated resistance. Further, the load resistance or impedance should be 10
times the pot's resistance to prevent the taper from being adversely affected.
You may (of course) be deliberately loading the pot as described below, but the
following stage must still present a high impedance unless its impedance has
been included in your calculations.

The second form of connection is a variable resistor. Not usable as a volume
control, but still extensively used for other applications. It is common (and
preferable) to join two of the leads together - the wiper, and one end or the
other. The actual connection depends on what you are trying to achieve, and
since there are so many possibilities, I won't even try to explain them all.
When used in this mode it is most commonly refererred to as a variable
resistance or resistor - the word rheostat is somewhat dated (to put it mildly)
and is not a term that I use in any of my articles.

To get an idea of the different configurations that are in common use, have a
look at the ESP Projects pages, and those on other web sites. The number of
possibilities is actually not that great, but people use different conventions
as well. For example, in Australia, we use the term 'anti-clockwise' or ACW. In
the US, this is 'counter-clockwise' or CCW. At least the term clockwise seems to
be common to both countries :-) Naturally enough, these are only two
conventions, and I am unsure of the terminology in other countries - especially
if they don't use English (and why would they, if they already have a language
of their own).

As a completely irrelevant side issue, the Web is changing this quite
quickly, as the majority of web sites are in English.

Figure 7 - Volume and Balance Controls

Figure 7 assumes the use of a log pot for volume. The balance control can be
done in many different ways, with that shown being but one. Quite a lot of
Japanese equipment uses a dual gang pot for balance, but the resistance element
only goes for half the travel. When set in the centre position, there is no loss
at all, and rotation in either direction attenuates the appropriate channel, but
leaves the other unaffected. This is yet another type of custom pot, made for a
specific purpose. I know of no manufacturer that sells such an item through the
normal distribution channels, so home builders have to come up with different
ways to achieve the same (or similar) things. The balance control as shown above
(with the values shown) will give a response very similar to the more complex
version described in the next section.

Changing the Law of a Pot

Using pots can be done in the conventional way, or you can get adventurous
and achieve a lot more. A good example is the 'Better Volume Control' shown in
Project
01. The other ideas presented also show how you can make modifications to
the way a pot behaves, just by adding a resistor (R). The 'ideal' value by
calculation is 22k for a 100k pot, and this gives a maximum deviation of +1.58
and -1.7dB from a real log curve. This is contrast to the original article,
where 15k was suggested, and although the error is greater (+2.89dB and
-1.12dB), the overall behaviour is almost ideal in listening tests.

Figure 8 - A Better Volume Control

Take a look at the balance control (below) as an example. The conventional
balance control requires either a log/antilog pot (virtually impossible to
obtain), or one of the special types commonly used in Japanese consumer hi-fi
gear. About the only way you'll get one of those is to remove it from the
equipment - again, they are virtually impossible to get from normal hobbyist
suppliers.

Add a couple of resistors to a dual gang linear pot, and the problem is
solved. Not only is the pot heavily 'centre weighted', but will also maintain a
relatively constant sound level as the balance is changed from full Left to full
Right. The centre weighting means that for most of the pot's travel, the balance
is shifted subtly, so it provides a very fine resolution around the central
position - there is little requirement for only one channel (other than
testing), but that is still available. In short, lots of benefits, and few
drawbacks.

Figure 9 - Centre Weighted Balance Control

Needless to say there are many other configurations that can be used, and
this is but one. The resistor value (RL and RR) is fairly important - it really
should be 35k for a 100k pot, but the error when using 33k is minimal (about
0.16 dB at centre position).

One of the goals of circuit design is to utilise available components. This
is not necessary if you make 10,000 of something, since at these quantities
special orders will cost little or no more than the normally available
components. When you are making one for yourself (or perhaps two - one for a
friend for example), specially designed components are not an option due to the
setup costs (this could easily be thousands of dollars/ euro/ pounds, etc.).
Even in quantities of several hundred, available components are still (usually)
cheaper.

The balance control above is an example of a dual log/ reverse log pot,
created with a standard dual gang pot and a couple of resistors ... and it works
better than a commercial offering is likely to - even if you managed to find
one.

For more information on this configuration, see Project 01. Note that as
shown, the balance control here is not optimised for any significant impedance
at the output, so its performance will change if you connect a volume control to
the output.

Figure 10 - Creating an 'S' Curve for Lighting

Another example of modifying a pot to make it do what you want is shown in
the LX-800 Lighting Controller. The faders need an 'S' curve, to compensate for
the non-linear behaviour of lamps and our eye's sensitivity to light levels.
This is also achieved with a couple of resistors across a normal linear pot.

If you don't like the shape for any reason, you can simply change the
resistor values and modify the curve to suit your exact needs. Since even
ordinary log pots are not actually logarithmic anyway, can you imagine getting a
pot that would give you an S-Curve? Even worse, if you found that it was not
suited to certain lamps, then you would be hard pressed to modify the law to get
what you needed. In some cases it would be impossible.

Conclusion

As you can see from the above, pots aren't as simple as you may have thought.
Adding resistors to change the amplitude response is only one of the many things
you can do that are not immediately obvious. You also now know about power
ratings and the various resistance materials that are used, so you should be
able to use pots with more confidence.

It's important to remember that because pots are variable anyway, there is
usually no need to use a specific value. If a circuit calls for a 22k (or 25k)
pot you can almost always use a 20k pot instead, because 22k and 25k are no
longer readily available values from many suppliers. The converse is also true,
so if you think you'll need them and you can get them cheaply, 25k pots (for
example) can generally be used anywhere that 20k pots are specified.

There will always be exceptions to the above, and this also needs to be
considered in some circuits. Pots can be irksome when used as simple
'rheostats', and it is not possible to modify the law of any pot used this way.
Some circuits may be more critical than others, so it's important to understand
exactly what the pot is doing in the circuit you are building. There are few
places where the value is critical, but in such cases you can often use a
resistor in parallel or in series with the pot to get the adjustment range
needed.

It's educational to look at the range available from your preferred supplier,
and whenever possible use parts that are reasonably common. This makes it much
easier to get an alternative from another supplier if necessary. The more
specialised the part, the more expensive it will be and the chance of getting a
replacement in 10 years time won't be good.

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Page created and copyright © 22 Jan 2002./ Updated Jan 2003./
20 Apr 10 - Minor updates, image reformat./ Jun 15 - minor updates, added
conclusion.